Study of Drug Related Problems in Type 2 Diabetes Patients with Covid-19
Abstract
Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) is one of several factors exacerbating Covid-19. Previous studies showed that polypharmacy might lead to Drug Related Problems (DRPs) due to some drugs administered during the management of both conditions. This study aimed to analyze DRPs in T2DM patients with Covid-19 at a private hospital in Denpasar, Bali.
This study was designed as cross-sectional research in June-July 2022. Data was collected from patient medical records based on inclusion and exclusion criteria. The inclusion criteria were patients T2DM with Covid-19, aged ³18 years, hospitalized between July 2020-July 2021, received Covid-19 and antidiabetic therapy. Patients who transferred to other hospitals during treatment were excluded. The DRPs included 6 aspects, namely indications without therapy, therapy without indications, inappropriate drugs, insufficient drug doses, high drug doses, and drug interactions which were analyzed by reffering to therapeutic guidelines.
Majority of 106 respondents is male (66.98%), aged 46-65 years (70.75%), had a fever (30.72%), oxygen saturation 91-95% (55.66%), blood glucose 228.38 mg/dL, temperature 36.68°C, degree of high severity (49.06%), length of stay ≥10 days (52.83%), and final status as discharge (80.19%). Patients received an average of 10.89±3.46 number of drugs. The highest number of antidiabetic use was rapid-acting insulin group (38.97%) then insulin aspart (20.00%). A number of 86.00% of the prescribed patients had experienced at least 1 type of DRPs (61.54%). The top three DRPs events found in this study were drug interactions (87,75%), inappropriate drugs (7,28%), and therapy without indications (4,97%). Role of pharmacists is required for preventing and minimizing DRPs events in the practice.
Keywords:
Type 2 diabetes mellitus; Covid-19; polypharmacy; drug related problems
References
[1]. International Diabetes Federation, 2021., IDF Diabetes Atlas. 10th editi., Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 1–100 p.
[2]. Pititto B, Dualib PM, Zajdenverg L, Dantas JR, De Souza FD, Rodacki M, et al., 2020, Severity and mortality of COVID 19 in patients with diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease: A meta-analysis, Diabetol Metab Syndr [Internet]. 12(1):1–12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13098-020-00586-4
[3]. Li B, Yang J, Zhao F, Zhi L, Wang X, Liu L, et al., 2020, Prevalence and impact of cardiovascular metabolic diseases on COVID-19 in China, Clin Res Cardiol. 109(5):531–8.
[4]. Poerniawan C, 2023, Comparison of mortality and severity in Coronavirus disease 2019 ( COVID-19 ) patient with and without diabetes mellitus : a systematic review, Intisari Sains Medis. 14(1):14–20.
[5]. CDC, 2020, Preliminary Estimates of the Prevalence of Selected Underlying Health Conditions Among Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019-United States, February 12-March 28, 2020, US Dep Heal Hum Serv Dis Control Prev. 69(13):382–6.
[6]. Harbuwono DS, Handayani DOTL, Wahyuningsih ES, Supraptowati N, Ananda, Kurniawan F, et al., 2022, Impact of diabetes mellitus on COVID-19 clinical symptoms and mortality: Jakarta’s COVID-19 epidemiological registry, Prim Care Diabetes. 16(1):65–8.
[7]. Karyono DR, Wicaksana AL, 2020, Current prevalence, characteristics, and comorbidities of patients with COVID-19 in Indonesia, J Community Empower Heal. 3(2):77.
[8]. Lim S, Bae JH, Kwon HS, Nauck MA, 2021, COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus: from pathophysiology to clinical management, Nat Rev Endocrinol [Internet]. 17(1):11–30. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41574-020-00435-4
[9]. Roberts J, Pritchard AL, Treweeke AT, Rossi AG, Brace N, Cahill P, et al., 2021, Why Is COVID-19 More Severe in Patients With Diabetes? The Role of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2, Endothelial Dysfunction and the Immunoinflammatory System, Front Cardiovasc Med. 7(February):1–23.
[10]. Burhan E, Susanto A, Nasution S, Ginanjar E, Pitoyo C, Susilo A, 2020., Pedoman Tatalaksana COVID-19, Jakarta: Perhimpunan Dokter Paru Indonesia (PDPI) Perhimpunan Dokter Spesialis Kardiovaskular Indonesia (PERKI) Perhimpunan Dokter Spesialis Penyakit Dalam Indonesia (PAPDI) Perhimpunan Dokter Anestesiologi dan Terapi Intensif Indonesia (PERDATIN) Ikatan Dokter An; 3–6 p.
[11]. Czupryniak L, Dicker D, Lehmann R, Prázný M, Schernthaner G, 2021, The management of type 2 diabetes before, during and after Covid-19 infection: what is the evidence?, Cardiovasc Diabetol [Internet]. 20(1):1–11. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-021-01389-1
[12]. Enwerem J, Boyer EW, Olufadeji A, 2021, Polypharmacy exposure, aging populations, and COVID-19: Considerations for healthcare providers and public health practitioners in Africa, Int J Environ Res Public Health. 18(19):2–7.
[13]. Cipolle RJ, Strand LM, Morley PC, 2004., Pharmaceutical Care Practice : The Clinician’s Guide. 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Companies;
[14]. Prasad T, Ranganayakulu D, Devanna N, 2021, Prescribing Pattern and Medication Related Problems in Hospitalized Diabetic Patients: A Hospital-Based Study, J Pharm Res Int. 33(5):12–21.
[15]. Abdulmalik H, Tadiwos Y, Legese N, 2019, Assessment of drug-related problems among type 2 diabetic patients on follow up at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Harar, Eastern Ethiopia, BMC Res Notes. 12(1):1–6.
[16]. Astuti SY, Ihsan M, Rahmawati F, 2020, Hubungan antara Drug-Related Problems dan Lama Rawat Inap pada Pasien dengan Diabetes Tipe 2, J Manaj DAN PELAYANAN Farm (Journal Manag Pharm Pract. 10(2):77.
[17]. Indriani L, Oktaviani E, 2019, Drug Related Problems (DRPs) Identification on Diabetes Melitus Type 2 Ward Patients with Complication, Bandung Int Conf Collab Heal Res. :1–14.
[18]. Bektay M, Sancar M, Okyaltirik F, Durdu B, Izzettin F, 2022, Investigation of Drug-Related Problems and Influencing Factors of COVID-19 Patients in Hospital Settings: An observational Study, Bezmialem Sci. :106–13.
[19]. Cheng F, Li Q, Han Y, Shi C, Wu S, Xu Q, et al., 2020, Analysis of influencing factors and pharmaceutical care of patients with COVID-19 in Fangcang Shelter Hospital, Infect Drug Resist. 13:3443–50.
[20]. Cipolle R, Strand L, Morley P, 2004., Pharmaceutical Care Practice : The Clinician’s Guide. 2nd ed, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies;
[21]. Micromedex.com, 2022, Drug Interactions,
[22]. Drugs.com, 2022., Interactions Checker,
[23]. Medscape, 2022., Drug Interaction Checker,
[24]. Purdie A, 2021, The COVID-19 Sex-Dissagregated Data Tracker November Update Report, globalhealth5050.org/covid19.
[25]. Klein SL, Marriott I, Fish EN, 2014, Sex-based differences in immune function and responses to vaccination, Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 109(1):9–15.
[26]. Soto M, Hernández H, Cáceres G, 2021, Sex differences in the incidence, mortality, and fatality of COVID-19 in Peru, PLoS One. 16(6):10–9.
[27]. Ejaz R, Ashraf MT, Qadeer S, Irfan M, Azam A, Butt S, et al., 2021, Gender-based incidence, recovery period, and mortality rate of COVID-19 among the population of district Attock, Pakistan, Brazilian J Biol. 83:1–7.
[28]. Zeng F, Dai C, Cai P, Wang J, Xu L, Li J, et al., 2020, A comparison study of SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody between male and female COVID-19 patients: A possible reason underlying different outcome between sex, J Med Virol. 92(10):2050–4.
[29]. Takahashi T, Ellingson MK, Wong P, Israelow B, Lucas C, Klein J, et al., 2020., Sex differences in immune responses that underlie COVID-19 disease outcomes, Vol. 588, Nature. 315–320 p.
[30]. Leong R, Lee TSJ, Chen Z, Zhang C, Xu J, 2021, global temporal patterns of age group and sex distributions of COVID-19, Infect Dis Rep. 13(2):582–96.
[31]. Kurnianta PDM, Soares GIB, Prasetya AANPR, Yuliawati AN, 2022, Evaluasi Rasionalitas Penggunaan Antidiabetes Oral pada Pasien Diabetes Melitus Tipe 2 Rawat Inap di Rumah Sakit Nasional di Dili, J Farm Indones. 19(1):148–60.
[32]. Sheleme T, Bekele F, Ayela T, 2020, Clinical Presentation of Patients Infected with Coronavirus Disease 19: A Systematic Review, Infect Dis Res Treat. 13:1–8.
[33]. Belon L, Skidmore P, Mehra R, Walter E, 2021, Effect of a fever in viral infections ⇔ the ‘Goldilocks’’ phenomenon?,’ World J Clin Cases. 9(2):296–307.
[34]. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al., 2020, Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China, Lancet. 395(10223):497–506.
[35]. Hafidh K, Abbas S, Khan A, Kazmi T, Nazir Z, Aldaham T, 2020, The Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of COVID-19 Infections in Patients with Diabetes at a Tertiary Care Center in the UAE, Dubai Diabetes Endocrinol J. 26(4):158–63.
[36]. Alshukry A, Bu Abbas M, Ali Y, Alahmad B, Al-Shammari AA, Alhamar G, et al., 2021, Clinical characteristics and outcomes of COVID-19 patients with diabetes mellitus in Kuwait, Heliyon [Internet]. 7(4):1–6. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06706
[37]. Roncon L, Zuin M, Rigatelli G, Zuliani G, 2020, Diabetic patients with COVID-19 infection are at higher risk of ICU admission and poor short-term outcome, J Clin Virol. :1–6.
[38]. Sardu C, D’Onofrio N, Balestrieri ML, Barbieri M, Rizzo MR, Messina V, et al., 2020, Outcomes in Patients with Hyperglycemia Affected by COVID-19: Can We Do More on Glycemic Control?, Diabetes Care. 43(7):1408–15.
[39]. Coppelli A, Giannarelli R, Aragona M, Penno G, Falcone M, Tiseo G, et al., 2020, Hyperglycemia at hospital admission is associated with severity of the prognosis in patients hospitalized for COVID-19: The pisa COVID-19 study, Diabetes Care. 43(10):2345–8.
[40]. Elktuni A, Elshwekh H, Lita A, Mustafa A, Edaali O, 2022, Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes in Diabetic Patients with COVID-19 in Tripoli 2021, AlQalam J Med Appl Sci [Internet]. 2(1):150–8. Available from: https://journal.utripoli.edu.ly/index.php/Alqalam/article/view/73
[41]. Renones CR, Torres M, Lujan F, Pericas C, Redondo A, Vilaplana-Carnerero C, et al., 2022, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and COVID-19: A Narrative Review, Biomedicines. 10(9):1–12.
[42]. Kemenkes RI, 2020., Pedoman Kesiapsiagaan Menghadapi Covid-19 versi 3 Maret 2020, Direktorat Jenderal Pencegahan dan Pengendalian Penyakit. Jakarta, Indonesia: Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia; 1–89 p.
[43]. Murni IK, Prawirohartono EP, Triasih R, 2021, Potential Role of Vitamins and Zinc on Acute Respiratory Infections Including Covid-19, Glob Pediatr Heal. 8(1).
[44]. Bicikova M, Macova L, Hill M, 2022, Vitamin D as a Possible COVID-19 Prevention Strategy, Int J Mol Sci. 23(18):1–8.
[45]. Tanaya GD, Syarif AH, 2022, Vitamin D Supplementation and COVID-19, J Respirasi. 8(1):60.
[46]. Bilezikian JP, Bikle D, Hewison M, Lazaretti-castro M, Formenti AM, 2020, Vitamin D and COVID-19, Eur J Endocrinol. 183:133–47.
[47]. Saraswati NAS, Amanda DA, Wijaya H, 2022, Vitamin D dan COVID-19: Tinjauan Literatur, Cermin Dunia Kedokt. 49(2):98.
[48]. Alsafar H, Grant WB, Hijazi R, Uddin M, Alkaabi N, Tay G, et al., 2021, COVID-19 disease severity and death in relation to vitamin D status among SARS-CoV-2-positive UAE residents, Nutrients. 13(5):1–14.
[49]. Sulli A, Gotelli E, Casabella A, Paolino S, Pizzorni C, Alessandri E, et al., 2021, Vitamin d and lung outcomes in elderly covid-19 patients, Nutrients. 13(3):1–13.
[50]. Ling SF, Broad E, Murphy R, Pappachan JM, Pardesi-Newton S, Kong MF, et al., 2020, High-dose cholecalciferol booster therapy is associated with a reduced risk of mortality in patients with covid-19: A cross-sectional multi-centre observational study, Nutrients. 12(12):1–16.
[51]. Allemann SS, Van Mil JWF, Botermann L, Berger K, Griese N, Hersberger KE, 2014, Pharmaceutical care: The PCNE definition 2013, Int J Clin Pharm. 36(3):544–55.
[52]. Singh M, de Wit E, 2022, Antiviral agents for the treatment of COVID-19: Progress and challenges, Cell Reports Med [Internet]. 3(3):100549. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100549
[53]. Sirois C, Boiteau V, Chiu Y, Gilca R, Simard M, 2022, Exploring the associations between polypharmacy and COVID-19-related hospitalisations and deaths: A population-based cohort study among older adults in Quebec, Canada, BMJ Open. 12(3):1–7.
[54]. McKeigue PM, Kennedy S, Weir A, Bishop J, McGurnaghan SJ, McAllister D, et al., 2021, Relation of severe COVID-19 to polypharmacy and prescribing of psychotropic drugs: the REACT-SCOT case-control study, Med BMC [Internet]. 19(1):1–11. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33612113/
[55]. Ramadhani J, Erlianti K, Fauzi M, Rahman F, 2021, Drug Interaction of Covid-19 In Intensive Care Unit Patients In South Kalimantan , Indonesia, IOSR J Pharm. 11(11):26–8.
[56]. Gupta S, Verma S, 2021, Polypharmacy in Times of Covid-19: A Narrative Review, Ann Med Health Sci Res [Internet]. 10(11):1–12. Available from: https://www.amhsr.org/articles/polypharmacy-in-times-of-covid19-a-narrative-review.pdf
[57]. Ghasemi H, Darvishi N, Salari N, Hosseinian-Far A, Akbari H, Mohammadi M, 2022, Global prevalence of polypharmacy among the COVID-19 patients: a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies, Trop Med Health [Internet]. 50(60):1–12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-022-00456-x
[58]. Shrestha Y, Venkataraman R, Moktan JB, Mallikarjuna S, Narayan SS, Madappa MH, et al., 2022, The Association of Medication Complexity with COVID-19 Severity and its Impact on Pharmacotherapy Evaluation, J Young Pharm. 14(3):322–6.
[59]. Burhan E, Susanto A, Nasution S, Ginanjar E, Pitoyo C, Susilo A, et al., 2022., Pedoman Tatalaksana COVID-19 Edisi 4 Januari 2022 [Internet], Pedoman Tatalaksana COVID-19 Edisi 4. 1–123 p. Available from: https://www.papdi.or.id/download/983-pedoman-tatalaksana-covid-19-edisi-3-desember-2020
[60]. Sugihantono A, Burhan E, Samuedro E, Aryati, Rinawati W, Sitompul P, 2020, Pedoman Pencegahan dan Pengendalian Corona Virus Diseases (Covid-19), Kementrian Kesehat RI. 5:1–178.
[61]. BPOM, 2020., Penetapan Pedoman Obat Dalam Penanganan Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), p. 1–236.
[62]. Lucien MAB, Canarie MF, Kilgore PE, Jean-Denis G, Fénélon N, Pierre M, et al., 2021, Antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in the COVID-19 era: Perspective from resource-limited settings, Int J Infect Dis. 104(52):250–4.
[63]. Sulayyim HJ Al, Ismail R, Hamid A Al, Ghafar NA, 2022, Antibiotic Resistance during COVID-19: A Systematic Review, Int J Environ Res Public Health. 19:1–16.
[64]. Setiadi AP, Wibowo YI, Halim S V., Brata C, Presley B, Setiawan E, 2020, Tata Laksana Terapi Pasien dengan COVID-19: Sebuah Kajian Naratif, Indones J Clin Pharm. 9(1):70.
[65]. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al., 2020, Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding, Lancet [Internet]. 395(10224):565–74. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8
[66]. Munir MA, Kuganda H, Basry A, 2020, The efficacy and safety of antivirus drugs for COVID-19: A systematic review, Syst Rev Pharm. 11(7):162–6.
[67]. Vegivinti CTR, Evanson KW, Lyons H, Akosman I, Barrett A, Hardy N, et al., 2022., Efficacy of antiviral therapies for COVID-19: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials [Internet], Vol. 22, BMC Infectious Diseases. BioMed Central; 1–45 p. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-022-07068-0
[68]. WHO, 2021., Living Guidance for clinical management of COVID-19 [Internet], World Health Organization. 63 p. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-clinical-2021-1
[69]. EMA, 2020, EMA endorses use of dexamethasone in COVID-19 patients on oxygen or mechanical ventilation, Eur Med Agency [Internet]. 31:1–2. Available from: www.ema.europa.eu/contact%0Awww.ema.europa.eu/contact%0Ahttps://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-endorses-use-dexamethasone-covid-19-patients-oxygen-mechanical-ventilation
[70]. Horby P, Lim W, Emberson J, Mafham M, Bell J, Linsell L, et al., 2021, Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19 : Preliminary Report, N Engl J Med. 384(8):693–704.
[71]. Paassen J V, Vos JS, Hoekstra EM, Neumann KMI, Boot PC, Arbous SM, 2020, Corticosteroid use in COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis on clinical outcomes, Crit Care [Internet]. 24(1):1–22. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-03400-9
[72]. Pulakurthi YS, Pederson JM, Saravu K, Gupta N, Balasubramanian P, Kamrowski S, et al., 2021, Corticosteroid therapy for COVID-19, Medicine (Baltimore). 100(20):1–7.
[73]. Johns M, George S, Taburyanskaya M, Poon YK, 2022, A Review of the Evidence for Corticosteroids in COVID-19, J Pharm Pract. 35(4):626–37.
[74]. World Health Organization, 2021, Therapeutics and COVID-19, World Heal Organ. :11–60.
[75]. Kemenkes RI, 2021, Keputusan Menteri Kesehatan Republik Indonesia Nomor HK.01.07/MENKES/5671/2021 tentang Manajemen Klinis Tata Laksana Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) di Fasilitas Pelayanan Kesehatan, Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia;
[2]. Pititto B, Dualib PM, Zajdenverg L, Dantas JR, De Souza FD, Rodacki M, et al., 2020, Severity and mortality of COVID 19 in patients with diabetes, hypertension and cardiovascular disease: A meta-analysis, Diabetol Metab Syndr [Internet]. 12(1):1–12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13098-020-00586-4
[3]. Li B, Yang J, Zhao F, Zhi L, Wang X, Liu L, et al., 2020, Prevalence and impact of cardiovascular metabolic diseases on COVID-19 in China, Clin Res Cardiol. 109(5):531–8.
[4]. Poerniawan C, 2023, Comparison of mortality and severity in Coronavirus disease 2019 ( COVID-19 ) patient with and without diabetes mellitus : a systematic review, Intisari Sains Medis. 14(1):14–20.
[5]. CDC, 2020, Preliminary Estimates of the Prevalence of Selected Underlying Health Conditions Among Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019-United States, February 12-March 28, 2020, US Dep Heal Hum Serv Dis Control Prev. 69(13):382–6.
[6]. Harbuwono DS, Handayani DOTL, Wahyuningsih ES, Supraptowati N, Ananda, Kurniawan F, et al., 2022, Impact of diabetes mellitus on COVID-19 clinical symptoms and mortality: Jakarta’s COVID-19 epidemiological registry, Prim Care Diabetes. 16(1):65–8.
[7]. Karyono DR, Wicaksana AL, 2020, Current prevalence, characteristics, and comorbidities of patients with COVID-19 in Indonesia, J Community Empower Heal. 3(2):77.
[8]. Lim S, Bae JH, Kwon HS, Nauck MA, 2021, COVID-19 and diabetes mellitus: from pathophysiology to clinical management, Nat Rev Endocrinol [Internet]. 17(1):11–30. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41574-020-00435-4
[9]. Roberts J, Pritchard AL, Treweeke AT, Rossi AG, Brace N, Cahill P, et al., 2021, Why Is COVID-19 More Severe in Patients With Diabetes? The Role of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme 2, Endothelial Dysfunction and the Immunoinflammatory System, Front Cardiovasc Med. 7(February):1–23.
[10]. Burhan E, Susanto A, Nasution S, Ginanjar E, Pitoyo C, Susilo A, 2020., Pedoman Tatalaksana COVID-19, Jakarta: Perhimpunan Dokter Paru Indonesia (PDPI) Perhimpunan Dokter Spesialis Kardiovaskular Indonesia (PERKI) Perhimpunan Dokter Spesialis Penyakit Dalam Indonesia (PAPDI) Perhimpunan Dokter Anestesiologi dan Terapi Intensif Indonesia (PERDATIN) Ikatan Dokter An; 3–6 p.
[11]. Czupryniak L, Dicker D, Lehmann R, Prázný M, Schernthaner G, 2021, The management of type 2 diabetes before, during and after Covid-19 infection: what is the evidence?, Cardiovasc Diabetol [Internet]. 20(1):1–11. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12933-021-01389-1
[12]. Enwerem J, Boyer EW, Olufadeji A, 2021, Polypharmacy exposure, aging populations, and COVID-19: Considerations for healthcare providers and public health practitioners in Africa, Int J Environ Res Public Health. 18(19):2–7.
[13]. Cipolle RJ, Strand LM, Morley PC, 2004., Pharmaceutical Care Practice : The Clinician’s Guide. 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Companies;
[14]. Prasad T, Ranganayakulu D, Devanna N, 2021, Prescribing Pattern and Medication Related Problems in Hospitalized Diabetic Patients: A Hospital-Based Study, J Pharm Res Int. 33(5):12–21.
[15]. Abdulmalik H, Tadiwos Y, Legese N, 2019, Assessment of drug-related problems among type 2 diabetic patients on follow up at Hiwot Fana Specialized University Hospital, Harar, Eastern Ethiopia, BMC Res Notes. 12(1):1–6.
[16]. Astuti SY, Ihsan M, Rahmawati F, 2020, Hubungan antara Drug-Related Problems dan Lama Rawat Inap pada Pasien dengan Diabetes Tipe 2, J Manaj DAN PELAYANAN Farm (Journal Manag Pharm Pract. 10(2):77.
[17]. Indriani L, Oktaviani E, 2019, Drug Related Problems (DRPs) Identification on Diabetes Melitus Type 2 Ward Patients with Complication, Bandung Int Conf Collab Heal Res. :1–14.
[18]. Bektay M, Sancar M, Okyaltirik F, Durdu B, Izzettin F, 2022, Investigation of Drug-Related Problems and Influencing Factors of COVID-19 Patients in Hospital Settings: An observational Study, Bezmialem Sci. :106–13.
[19]. Cheng F, Li Q, Han Y, Shi C, Wu S, Xu Q, et al., 2020, Analysis of influencing factors and pharmaceutical care of patients with COVID-19 in Fangcang Shelter Hospital, Infect Drug Resist. 13:3443–50.
[20]. Cipolle R, Strand L, Morley P, 2004., Pharmaceutical Care Practice : The Clinician’s Guide. 2nd ed, New York: McGraw-Hill Companies;
[21]. Micromedex.com, 2022, Drug Interactions,
[22]. Drugs.com, 2022., Interactions Checker,
[23]. Medscape, 2022., Drug Interaction Checker,
[24]. Purdie A, 2021, The COVID-19 Sex-Dissagregated Data Tracker November Update Report, globalhealth5050.org/covid19.
[25]. Klein SL, Marriott I, Fish EN, 2014, Sex-based differences in immune function and responses to vaccination, Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 109(1):9–15.
[26]. Soto M, Hernández H, Cáceres G, 2021, Sex differences in the incidence, mortality, and fatality of COVID-19 in Peru, PLoS One. 16(6):10–9.
[27]. Ejaz R, Ashraf MT, Qadeer S, Irfan M, Azam A, Butt S, et al., 2021, Gender-based incidence, recovery period, and mortality rate of COVID-19 among the population of district Attock, Pakistan, Brazilian J Biol. 83:1–7.
[28]. Zeng F, Dai C, Cai P, Wang J, Xu L, Li J, et al., 2020, A comparison study of SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibody between male and female COVID-19 patients: A possible reason underlying different outcome between sex, J Med Virol. 92(10):2050–4.
[29]. Takahashi T, Ellingson MK, Wong P, Israelow B, Lucas C, Klein J, et al., 2020., Sex differences in immune responses that underlie COVID-19 disease outcomes, Vol. 588, Nature. 315–320 p.
[30]. Leong R, Lee TSJ, Chen Z, Zhang C, Xu J, 2021, global temporal patterns of age group and sex distributions of COVID-19, Infect Dis Rep. 13(2):582–96.
[31]. Kurnianta PDM, Soares GIB, Prasetya AANPR, Yuliawati AN, 2022, Evaluasi Rasionalitas Penggunaan Antidiabetes Oral pada Pasien Diabetes Melitus Tipe 2 Rawat Inap di Rumah Sakit Nasional di Dili, J Farm Indones. 19(1):148–60.
[32]. Sheleme T, Bekele F, Ayela T, 2020, Clinical Presentation of Patients Infected with Coronavirus Disease 19: A Systematic Review, Infect Dis Res Treat. 13:1–8.
[33]. Belon L, Skidmore P, Mehra R, Walter E, 2021, Effect of a fever in viral infections ⇔ the ‘Goldilocks’’ phenomenon?,’ World J Clin Cases. 9(2):296–307.
[34]. Huang C, Wang Y, Li X, Ren L, Zhao J, Hu Y, et al., 2020, Clinical features of patients infected with 2019 novel coronavirus in Wuhan, China, Lancet. 395(10223):497–506.
[35]. Hafidh K, Abbas S, Khan A, Kazmi T, Nazir Z, Aldaham T, 2020, The Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of COVID-19 Infections in Patients with Diabetes at a Tertiary Care Center in the UAE, Dubai Diabetes Endocrinol J. 26(4):158–63.
[36]. Alshukry A, Bu Abbas M, Ali Y, Alahmad B, Al-Shammari AA, Alhamar G, et al., 2021, Clinical characteristics and outcomes of COVID-19 patients with diabetes mellitus in Kuwait, Heliyon [Internet]. 7(4):1–6. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06706
[37]. Roncon L, Zuin M, Rigatelli G, Zuliani G, 2020, Diabetic patients with COVID-19 infection are at higher risk of ICU admission and poor short-term outcome, J Clin Virol. :1–6.
[38]. Sardu C, D’Onofrio N, Balestrieri ML, Barbieri M, Rizzo MR, Messina V, et al., 2020, Outcomes in Patients with Hyperglycemia Affected by COVID-19: Can We Do More on Glycemic Control?, Diabetes Care. 43(7):1408–15.
[39]. Coppelli A, Giannarelli R, Aragona M, Penno G, Falcone M, Tiseo G, et al., 2020, Hyperglycemia at hospital admission is associated with severity of the prognosis in patients hospitalized for COVID-19: The pisa COVID-19 study, Diabetes Care. 43(10):2345–8.
[40]. Elktuni A, Elshwekh H, Lita A, Mustafa A, Edaali O, 2022, Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes in Diabetic Patients with COVID-19 in Tripoli 2021, AlQalam J Med Appl Sci [Internet]. 2(1):150–8. Available from: https://journal.utripoli.edu.ly/index.php/Alqalam/article/view/73
[41]. Renones CR, Torres M, Lujan F, Pericas C, Redondo A, Vilaplana-Carnerero C, et al., 2022, Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and COVID-19: A Narrative Review, Biomedicines. 10(9):1–12.
[42]. Kemenkes RI, 2020., Pedoman Kesiapsiagaan Menghadapi Covid-19 versi 3 Maret 2020, Direktorat Jenderal Pencegahan dan Pengendalian Penyakit. Jakarta, Indonesia: Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia; 1–89 p.
[43]. Murni IK, Prawirohartono EP, Triasih R, 2021, Potential Role of Vitamins and Zinc on Acute Respiratory Infections Including Covid-19, Glob Pediatr Heal. 8(1).
[44]. Bicikova M, Macova L, Hill M, 2022, Vitamin D as a Possible COVID-19 Prevention Strategy, Int J Mol Sci. 23(18):1–8.
[45]. Tanaya GD, Syarif AH, 2022, Vitamin D Supplementation and COVID-19, J Respirasi. 8(1):60.
[46]. Bilezikian JP, Bikle D, Hewison M, Lazaretti-castro M, Formenti AM, 2020, Vitamin D and COVID-19, Eur J Endocrinol. 183:133–47.
[47]. Saraswati NAS, Amanda DA, Wijaya H, 2022, Vitamin D dan COVID-19: Tinjauan Literatur, Cermin Dunia Kedokt. 49(2):98.
[48]. Alsafar H, Grant WB, Hijazi R, Uddin M, Alkaabi N, Tay G, et al., 2021, COVID-19 disease severity and death in relation to vitamin D status among SARS-CoV-2-positive UAE residents, Nutrients. 13(5):1–14.
[49]. Sulli A, Gotelli E, Casabella A, Paolino S, Pizzorni C, Alessandri E, et al., 2021, Vitamin d and lung outcomes in elderly covid-19 patients, Nutrients. 13(3):1–13.
[50]. Ling SF, Broad E, Murphy R, Pappachan JM, Pardesi-Newton S, Kong MF, et al., 2020, High-dose cholecalciferol booster therapy is associated with a reduced risk of mortality in patients with covid-19: A cross-sectional multi-centre observational study, Nutrients. 12(12):1–16.
[51]. Allemann SS, Van Mil JWF, Botermann L, Berger K, Griese N, Hersberger KE, 2014, Pharmaceutical care: The PCNE definition 2013, Int J Clin Pharm. 36(3):544–55.
[52]. Singh M, de Wit E, 2022, Antiviral agents for the treatment of COVID-19: Progress and challenges, Cell Reports Med [Internet]. 3(3):100549. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrm.2022.100549
[53]. Sirois C, Boiteau V, Chiu Y, Gilca R, Simard M, 2022, Exploring the associations between polypharmacy and COVID-19-related hospitalisations and deaths: A population-based cohort study among older adults in Quebec, Canada, BMJ Open. 12(3):1–7.
[54]. McKeigue PM, Kennedy S, Weir A, Bishop J, McGurnaghan SJ, McAllister D, et al., 2021, Relation of severe COVID-19 to polypharmacy and prescribing of psychotropic drugs: the REACT-SCOT case-control study, Med BMC [Internet]. 19(1):1–11. Available from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33612113/
[55]. Ramadhani J, Erlianti K, Fauzi M, Rahman F, 2021, Drug Interaction of Covid-19 In Intensive Care Unit Patients In South Kalimantan , Indonesia, IOSR J Pharm. 11(11):26–8.
[56]. Gupta S, Verma S, 2021, Polypharmacy in Times of Covid-19: A Narrative Review, Ann Med Health Sci Res [Internet]. 10(11):1–12. Available from: https://www.amhsr.org/articles/polypharmacy-in-times-of-covid19-a-narrative-review.pdf
[57]. Ghasemi H, Darvishi N, Salari N, Hosseinian-Far A, Akbari H, Mohammadi M, 2022, Global prevalence of polypharmacy among the COVID-19 patients: a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies, Trop Med Health [Internet]. 50(60):1–12. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-022-00456-x
[58]. Shrestha Y, Venkataraman R, Moktan JB, Mallikarjuna S, Narayan SS, Madappa MH, et al., 2022, The Association of Medication Complexity with COVID-19 Severity and its Impact on Pharmacotherapy Evaluation, J Young Pharm. 14(3):322–6.
[59]. Burhan E, Susanto A, Nasution S, Ginanjar E, Pitoyo C, Susilo A, et al., 2022., Pedoman Tatalaksana COVID-19 Edisi 4 Januari 2022 [Internet], Pedoman Tatalaksana COVID-19 Edisi 4. 1–123 p. Available from: https://www.papdi.or.id/download/983-pedoman-tatalaksana-covid-19-edisi-3-desember-2020
[60]. Sugihantono A, Burhan E, Samuedro E, Aryati, Rinawati W, Sitompul P, 2020, Pedoman Pencegahan dan Pengendalian Corona Virus Diseases (Covid-19), Kementrian Kesehat RI. 5:1–178.
[61]. BPOM, 2020., Penetapan Pedoman Obat Dalam Penanganan Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19), p. 1–236.
[62]. Lucien MAB, Canarie MF, Kilgore PE, Jean-Denis G, Fénélon N, Pierre M, et al., 2021, Antibiotics and antimicrobial resistance in the COVID-19 era: Perspective from resource-limited settings, Int J Infect Dis. 104(52):250–4.
[63]. Sulayyim HJ Al, Ismail R, Hamid A Al, Ghafar NA, 2022, Antibiotic Resistance during COVID-19: A Systematic Review, Int J Environ Res Public Health. 19:1–16.
[64]. Setiadi AP, Wibowo YI, Halim S V., Brata C, Presley B, Setiawan E, 2020, Tata Laksana Terapi Pasien dengan COVID-19: Sebuah Kajian Naratif, Indones J Clin Pharm. 9(1):70.
[65]. Lu R, Zhao X, Li J, Niu P, Yang B, Wu H, et al., 2020, Genomic characterisation and epidemiology of 2019 novel coronavirus: implications for virus origins and receptor binding, Lancet [Internet]. 395(10224):565–74. Available from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30251-8
[66]. Munir MA, Kuganda H, Basry A, 2020, The efficacy and safety of antivirus drugs for COVID-19: A systematic review, Syst Rev Pharm. 11(7):162–6.
[67]. Vegivinti CTR, Evanson KW, Lyons H, Akosman I, Barrett A, Hardy N, et al., 2022., Efficacy of antiviral therapies for COVID-19: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials [Internet], Vol. 22, BMC Infectious Diseases. BioMed Central; 1–45 p. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-022-07068-0
[68]. WHO, 2021., Living Guidance for clinical management of COVID-19 [Internet], World Health Organization. 63 p. Available from: https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/WHO-2019-nCoV-clinical-2021-1
[69]. EMA, 2020, EMA endorses use of dexamethasone in COVID-19 patients on oxygen or mechanical ventilation, Eur Med Agency [Internet]. 31:1–2. Available from: www.ema.europa.eu/contact%0Awww.ema.europa.eu/contact%0Ahttps://www.ema.europa.eu/en/news/ema-endorses-use-dexamethasone-covid-19-patients-oxygen-mechanical-ventilation
[70]. Horby P, Lim W, Emberson J, Mafham M, Bell J, Linsell L, et al., 2021, Dexamethasone in Hospitalized Patients with Covid-19 : Preliminary Report, N Engl J Med. 384(8):693–704.
[71]. Paassen J V, Vos JS, Hoekstra EM, Neumann KMI, Boot PC, Arbous SM, 2020, Corticosteroid use in COVID-19 patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis on clinical outcomes, Crit Care [Internet]. 24(1):1–22. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-020-03400-9
[72]. Pulakurthi YS, Pederson JM, Saravu K, Gupta N, Balasubramanian P, Kamrowski S, et al., 2021, Corticosteroid therapy for COVID-19, Medicine (Baltimore). 100(20):1–7.
[73]. Johns M, George S, Taburyanskaya M, Poon YK, 2022, A Review of the Evidence for Corticosteroids in COVID-19, J Pharm Pract. 35(4):626–37.
[74]. World Health Organization, 2021, Therapeutics and COVID-19, World Heal Organ. :11–60.
[75]. Kemenkes RI, 2021, Keputusan Menteri Kesehatan Republik Indonesia Nomor HK.01.07/MENKES/5671/2021 tentang Manajemen Klinis Tata Laksana Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) di Fasilitas Pelayanan Kesehatan, Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia;
Published
2024-05-31
Section
Articles
